Computing environments have evolved from centralized systems to cloud and blockchain, and while traditional virtual machines were optimized for Web2, they failed to meet the security and transparency demands of blockchain. The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) provides a computing environment suitable for blockchain and supports the execution of smart contracts.
Zero-knowledge virtual machines are technologies that prove validity while maintaining the confidentiality of transactions, addressing scalability and privacy issues and enhancing interoperability across blockchain networks. Projects like RiscZero and Succinct support this, while Taiko integrates zero-knowledge proofs to improve network performance.
Although zero-knowledge virtual machines still require improvement, they are emerging as a key technology equipped with reliability and scalability for the Web3 era. They are expected to play a crucial role in laying the foundation for the blockchain ecosystem and dApp environment.
Computing environments have evolved from centralized mainframes in their early stages to personal computers (PCs) and further to cloud computing, becoming increasingly personalized and decentralized. Recently, the paradigm has shifted even further toward decentralized models, such as blockchain.
In this progression, virtual machines (VMs)—which virtualize computer hardware resources like CPU, memory, and network to enable the operation of operating systems and applications—have also advanced.
Traditional VMs were designed to meet the demands of the Web2 era, providing efficient performance, stability, and scalability for Web2 applications. However, because they inherently assume a centralized operational model, they addressed trust issues mainly by relying on operational entities rather than solving them through technological means. As a result, they faced inherent limitations in terms of security and transparency. For instance, the Meltdown vulnerability discovered in 2018, which affected major CPUs from Intel, AMD, and ARM, also impacted virtualization environments. Users sharing physical servers in cloud environments were exposed to the risk of data breaches.
However, the emergence of blockchain has brought about a significant paradigm shift in computing, including virtual machines. Blockchain provides a technological foundation capable of replacing the trust model of Web2, challenging conventional systems head-on. The introduction of the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM)—which enables Ethereum and smart contract operations—further highlighted the need for a new computing environment aligned with the characteristics of blockchain.
As computing environments transition from Web2 to Web3, they are undergoing significant transformation, evolving to meet new demands.
Let’s delve into how computing environments have evolved, from traditional VMs to zero-knowledge virtual machines (zkVMs).
A VM is a software-implemented computing environment that allows independent execution of various programs, enhancing security and stability while enabling them to run on the same hardware. However, traditional VMs lacked features tailored for blockchain environments, such as compatibility and cryptographic verification, failing to fully meet the security demands of trustless blockchain ecosystems.
To address these shortcomings, Ethereum introduced the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM). The EVM defines the state of Ethereum, functions to manage it, and various transaction types, enabling users to interact seamlessly with the Ethereum blockchain network. Designed to efficiently execute Ethereum smart contracts, developed primarily in Solidity, the EVM became a driving force behind the expansion of the dApp ecosystem.
However, the EVM struggled with scalability and the need to ensure transaction confidentiality, paving the way for the development of the Zero-Knowledge Virtual Machine (zkEVM).
The zkEVM is a type of VM that integrates zero-knowledge proofs while remaining compatible with the EVM. It allows for the validation of transactions without disclosing their details, enabling dApps and services built on traditional smart contracts to operate with minimal modifications. This development provided a foundation for privacy-preserving and scalable blockchain applications.
Despite its advantages, representing all Ethereum network operations as zero-knowledge proofs is technically complex and challenging to optimize for performance. Maintaining full compatibility with the EVM often leads to inefficiencies. Additionally, the most significant limitation of the zkEVM is its inherent dependency on the Ethereum VM, restricting its broader scalability.
The zero-knowledge virtual machine (zkVM) goes beyond Ethereum to become a blockchain-agnostic VM designed for leveraging the benefits of zero-knowledge proofs universally. Its key strengths include maintaining data privacy and significantly improving blockchain scalability. While zkEVM research highlighted these advantages, zkVM takes this a step further by supporting a wide range of programming languages, such as Rust, C/C++, and Go, making it adaptable to diverse environments. This achievement represents a major milestone in blockchain computing.
In summary, the limitations of Ethereum and other blockchain networks can be addressed with zkVMs, offering a paradigm shift. As zkVMs evolve, they can replace the role traditional VMs played in Web2 computing environments, laying the groundwork for a robust Web3 ecosystem.
How are zkVMs, the foundation of the Web3 computing environment, being utilized today?
RISC Zero: RISC Zero is a project developing a zkVM based on the RISC-V instruction set. It supports high-level programming languages like Rust, enabling developers to easily build zero-knowledge applications using familiar tools. The zkVM 1.0 version has improved performance and cost efficiency while offering interoperability with multiple blockchains. By introducing application-defined pre-compilation capabilities, it supports the development of high-performance zero-knowledge applications, facilitating efficient handling of complex computations across diverse environments.
Succinct: Succinct’s zkVM, SP1, can prove the execution of programs written in LLVM-based languages like Rust. SP1 supports fast, cost-efficient proof generation and offers compatibility with various blockchains. It enables developers to write code in Rust, avoiding the complexity of designing custom ZKP circuits, and leverages the power of zero-knowledge proofs without requiring extensive expertise in cryptography.
Jolt: Jolt, developed by a16z crypto, is a zkVM framework that simplifies implementing new virtual machine instructions with an intuitive programming model. It supports high-level languages like Rust and Go, allowing developers to prove program execution without needing a deep understanding of zero-knowledge proofs, streamlining zkVM-based application development.
ZKM: ZKM is a zkVM based on the MIPS architecture, utilizing zk-STARK technology to enhance privacy and scalability. It is designed for diverse blockchain applications, emphasizing performance and versatility.
Source: Taiko Mirror
A notable example of zkVM optimization in action is Taiko. Taiko has implemented a Based Contestable Rollup (BCR) for full decentralization, incorporating multiple proof systems. By leveraging different rollup proof systems, Taiko enhances system flexibility and operational stability.
Taiko has integrated zero-knowledge proofs into its mainnet, completing improvements to its multi-proof architecture. This integration, which includes zkVMs from Succinct and RISC Zero, strengthens the robustness of the system.
Previously reliant on Software Guard Extensions (SGX)-based proofs, Taiko aims to transition to full zk-rollups by the end of 2025. Starting March 31, 2025, all block proposers will be required to meet zk-proof requirements, with 10%-25% of blocks mandating zk-proofs.
To comply, block proposers must pre-configure their environments for zk-proof generation. As Taiko does not provide zk-proof generation services directly, proposers need to collaborate with projects like Succinct or RISC Zero. Failure to meet zk-proof requirements by the deadline may result in penalties for proposers.
Looking ahead, Taiko plans to apply zkVM-based proof systems to all blocks while maintaining TEE as a supplementary mechanism. Additional zkVM and TEE integrations will further enhance the network’s security and scalability.
zkVMs, unlike traditional virtual machines, establish the foundation for a new Web3 ecosystem by integrating seamlessly with blockchain networks. They enable various dApps and services to operate in a more trustworthy and scalable environment.
Projects like RISC Zero and Succinct have recognized the potential of zkVMs and continue to develop and expand their applications. Additionally, Taiko collaborates with these initiatives to further explore and implement zkVM use cases.
Of course, zkVMs remain a technology in need of refinement. Challenges include complex circuit design, suboptimal performance, and the steep learning curve required for developers to adapt to zkVM-based environments.
Nevertheless, as the Web3 era becomes increasingly sophisticated, there is an undeniable need for innovative approaches to address requirements that traditional virtual machines cannot fulfill. In this regard, zkVMs are emerging as a crucial solution, serving as the technological soil for Web3.
As the blockchain industry evolves, it is worth closely observing how zkVMs develop further and contribute positively. Their ability to address the limitations of previous computing paradigms positions them as a pivotal technology in shaping the future of Web3.
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