LayerZero
SuccinctUntil now, the blockchain industry has mainly focused on improving speed, cost, and infrastructure. However, these technical advancements alone are still insufficient for Web3 to achieve the level of mainstream adoption and scalability that the internet has. For Web3 to truly grow to an internet-scale ecosystem, developers need an environment where they can more easily create and deploy creative applications.
At this turning point, “verifiable computing” could be a key solution. If rollups were the core technology solving Ethereum’s scalability, verifiable computing is now gaining attention as a foundation that can address both the reliability and scalability of Web3 as a whole. This concept is embodied in what’s called a vApp.
A vApp is a method for scaling Web3 applications to an internet-level by leveraging verifiable computing, zero-knowledge virtual machines, modular architecture, and an integrated SDK. This helps lower the entry barriers for both developers and users, and allows for the creation of apps that can seamlessly connect with various blockchains.
However, for vApps to become a reality, more Web3 infrastructure and applications need to adopt and integrate this structure. Additionally, improvements are needed in areas such as the cost of zero-knowledge proofs and incentive structures. Nonetheless, vApps are emerging as a promising solution to bridge the gap between Web2 and Web3, and are worth watching as they may drive the future evolution of the space.
Source: Apple
In the mid-2000s, mobile devices such as Apple’s iPhone, BlackBerry, Palm, and Symbian began to popularize the concept of the “smartphone,” capable of handling email, internet access, and calendar management. However, users were still limited in functionality. Developers had to build apps in complex ways tailored to each manufacturer’s platform, and distribution and updates were highly inefficient. Although the hardware had advanced, the applications running on it failed to keep up. As a result, the user experience stagnated, and the mobile revolution seemed to be at a standstill.
But in 2008, the launch of the App Store and the introduction of software development kits (SDKs) for mobile devices provided a unified development environment and distribution channel. This allowed countless developers to easily create innovative apps, and smartphones were reborn as truly “smart” devices, thanks to the evolving app ecosystem driven by the App Store.
Today, Web3 stands at a similar inflection point. Improvements in processing speed and scalability are underway, alongside various technological efforts aimed at enhancing user experience. Blockchain architectures are also diversifying into monolithic and modular models, with innovations like execution separation and abstraction being introduced to elevate the user experience. For instance, Ethereum is transitioning to a rollup-centric model, where execution happens off-chain and only the results are recorded on the mainnet. Celestia, on the other hand, focuses on data availability and consensus while offloading execution to separate blockchains, thus improving processing efficiency. Meanwhile, blockchains like Solana and Sui maintain a unified structure while offering high throughput and low fees, making blockchain use increasingly practical within Web3.
Despite these technological advancements, structural barriers still prevent Web3 from achieving true "internet-scale expansion." This term doesn't just refer to increased transaction throughput—it means an environment where tens of millions of users can use apps without technical barriers, where high-level applications are deployed and composed in a trustless manner, and where countless developers can build creative apps using a shared toolkit. In other words, a foundational structure must be established that allows user, developer, and application diversity to grow together.
An environment where tens of millions of users can access apps without technical barriers: So far, Web3 has demanded too much prior knowledge from users—managing wallets, understanding wallet keys, selecting blockchain networks, and setting transaction fees. This is one of the main reasons general users abandon Web3 apps upon first contact. From a developer’s perspective, designing user flows to minimize this onboarding friction, as well as connecting the front-end with the back-end, is cumbersome and limiting. Ultimately, users need simple, intuitive interfaces, while developers need tools and environments that make such interfaces easy to implement.
A structure that allows trustless application deployment: Today’s Web3 often relies on centralized servers or bridges to securely execute complex business logic beyond simple token transfers or swaps. However, for a decentralized Web3, verifiability and trustless execution are essential. Developers aiming to implement these features must understand the rules and verification mechanisms of various blockchains and often build their own proof systems. This imposes an excessive technical burden, resulting in a bottleneck that simplifies Web3 apps to a fault.
An ecosystem where developers can build creative apps: Currently, SDKs, application binary interfaces (ABIs), call methods, and proof mechanisms vary from blockchain to blockchain, leading to severe code fragmentation and poor reusability. This greatly increases development difficulty and makes it hard for small teams or new developers to even get started. In contrast, if developers could build on unified rules and SDKs, extending and modularizing each other’s code, the ecosystem’s composability and scalability would improve dramatically. This would create a positive feedback loop where users gain access to a wider variety of apps, and developers can experiment and deploy more quickly.
However, today’s Web3 infrastructure still lacks a well-defined structure. This isn’t merely an issue of poor user experience—it stems from the fact that the underlying development environment remains incomplete. Specifically, today’s Web3 developers face severe fragmentation due to the absence of a standardized architectural framework.
For instance, even in the case of Zero-Knowledge Ethereum Virtual Machines (zkEVMs), each implementation uses different rules and languages, making system-wide verification and integration difficult. Code consistency and interoperability between modules are poor. As a result, developers must separately understand and design smart contracts, blockchain infrastructure, and proof logic. The integration process becomes complex and increases security risks. This raises the barrier to entry and hinders application diversity and experimentation.
This article introduces Verifiable Applications (vApps) as an attempt to solve that bottleneck. Proposed by LayerZero and Succinct, this new execution environment aims to improve Web3 infrastructure by leveraging verifiable computing, modular SDKs, and zero-knowledge virtual machines to satisfy both developers and users.
For example, global payment systems today are dominated by Visa and Mastercard, which split a $20 trillion annual global market. Yet their backends still operate on decades-old structures, resulting in cross-border payment delays, complex settlements, and intermediary fees. Fintech interfaces may have masked these issues, but the underlying systems haven’t changed. However, if payment applications were built using the vApp architecture and powered by stablecoins, all processes—real-time settlement, cross-border direct remittance, and cross-chain asset handling—could be implemented in a verifiable and trustless manner. This would ensure reliability, composability, privacy, and scalability of the payment infrastructure all at once. In fact, Visa and Mastercard have recently announced plans to integrate blockchain-based settlement systems and stablecoins, signaling movement in this direction. vApps can serve as the technical foundation for such next-generation payment systems.
So how is such a promising model like vApp even possible? Let’s now take a look at the technical structure and key concepts that make vApps work.
Source: vApps: Verifiable Applications at Internet Scale Whitepaper
vApps, proposed by LayerZero and Succinct, are an effort to preserve Web3’s decentralized philosophy while achieving Web2-level usability and scalability. Built on the core design principles of composability, abstraction, and modularity, vApps enable flexible integration of diverse features and services. This allows developers to focus on core logic rather than complex low-level implementations, while the architecture of independent components offers high efficiency in maintenance and scalability. As a result, vApps lower entry barriers for users and provide developers with higher productivity and system reliability.
The two key technical foundations that make the vApp concept viable are A software development kit (SDK) centered around verifiable computing, and A zero-knowledge virtual machine (zkVM).
The core goal of a vApp is to enable the easy development of applications that guarantee execution integrity in a trustless environment—without requiring complex infrastructure design. The technology that makes this possible is verifiable computing. This is a foundational component in modular architectures, and it plays a key role in safely verifying and connecting the states of different blockchains within layer-separated structures like rollups.
Verifiable computing facilitates a transition to modular blockchain architecture by separating computation and settlement, allowing modules within different layers to interact without needing to trust one another. It also enables accurate validation of externally executed computations without re-executing them on-chain.
Some representative verifiable computing technologies include:
Optimistic Rollups: Offer low costs and high throughput but suffer from slow finality due to dispute windows of up to 7 days, making them less suitable for services requiring fast settlement.
Zero-Knowledge Rollups (ZK Rollups): Provide strong cryptographic guarantees for every transaction, making them ideal for cross-chain environments. However, they require heavy computation for generating zero-knowledge proofs, which can reduce throughput.
Trusted Execution Environment (TEE) Rollups: Support fast finality and low-cost off-chain computation, which makes them attractive for application-level services. However, they have limitations such as hardware security vulnerabilities and lack of public auditability.
Despite these trade-offs, verifiable computing solutions are increasingly being adopted as foundational technologies that enable scalability, security, and decentralization in blockchain systems. By decoupling computation and verification, each layer can be independently optimized—paving the way for internet-scale applications.
The vApp SDK is a framework designed on top of this technical foundation to maximize developer productivity. Built on the tech stack developed by Succinct, it supports a range of verifiable computing methods, including optimistic rollups, ZK rollups, and TEE-based rollups. When combined with the zero-knowledge virtual machine (zkVM), which will be discussed later, it enables the same level of trustless computation with fewer resources and faster performance—without complex system architecture or high maintenance overhead.
The SDK provides an integrated environment that handles both on-chain and off-chain components. It automatically generates provers, verifiers, and backend infrastructure, allowing developers to build full applications simply and efficiently. As a result, it significantly reduces the complexity and code fragmentation often encountered in zkEVM-based development.
For example, the vApp framework provides a Unified Development Environment designed to let developers focus solely on the core logic of their applications. As shown in area (a) of the diagram, vApp CORE allows application logic to be defined and composed through imports and macros while utilizing external libraries. Based on this setup, area (b) enables integration with verifiable databases, provers, and backend systems—ensuring off-chain state management and execution integrity.
From the on-chain interface perspective, all state changes are processed through a unified verification function called Verify(S′, S, C, π). Here, S is the current state, S′ is the updated state, C is the transaction data, and π is the proof. This function follows a standardized structure regardless of the underlying proof technology—whether zero-knowledge, trusted execution, or optimistic models. This abstraction allows developers to design applications in a consistent way, without being tied to specific technology stacks.
Additionally, vApp supports a multichain environment via INTER-CHAIN INTERFACES powered by LayerZero’s standardized messaging protocol. This enables secure orchestration of transactions across multiple blockchains. Developers can design verifiable applications that support both synchronous and asynchronous transactions, composability, and atomic execution. This cross-chain messaging layer ensures security and compatibility without needing custom communication logic, allowing smooth execution of transactions across diverse blockchains.
As a result, through the vApp SDK and inter-chain infrastructure, vApps can be deployed in trustless environments and orchestrate execution between blockchain and Web2 systems without centralized control. This forms a core infrastructure enabling developers to build secure, internet-scale applications.
The second core technology behind vApps is the Zero-Knowledge Virtual Machine (zkVM). While various proof methods—such as optimistic verification or trusted execution environments (TEEs)—can be used to guarantee execution integrity, vApps specifically adopt zkVMs to gain superior performance benefits. This isn’t just a theoretical advantage: real-world benchmarks show that zkVMs meet the throughput and efficiency requirements demanded by vApps.
A zkVM is a virtual machine that compiles high-level code written in Rust into RISC-V instructions and then transforms the execution process into a zero-knowledge proof. Compared to zkEVMs (zero-knowledge Ethereum virtual machines), zkVMs have significantly lower overhead and can be optimized for a wide variety of application use cases—making them highly compatible with vApps' modular architecture and multi-chain flexibility.
When used within the vApp framework, zkVMs deliver remarkable performance metrics:
Up to 95.7% reduction in proof cycles with precompilation
As much as 197x lower overhead compared to traditional EVM-based approaches
Up to 30x improvement in proving throughput using GPU parallel acceleration
Proof size compression from 346MB to 1.5MB, dramatically reducing the on-chain verification burden
These numbers go beyond mere technical benchmarks—they demonstrate that a vApp integrated with zkVMs can function in real-world application environments. Fast response times and low operational costs, both tangible to users, show that zkVMs provide a practical execution layer for internet-scale expansion.
From a security standpoint, zkVMs also play a crucial role. Their proof systems ensure soundness and completeness, verifiability of both execution and the prover, and benefit from open-source transparency. This strengthens the overall trustworthiness and long-term scalability of the vApp model.
Ultimately, among the various verifiable computing options available, zkVMs stand out as the optimal solution that fulfills the vApp vision: high performance, scalability, and reliability—all at once.
The vApp architecture is designed to seamlessly connect off-chain execution, authenticated data storage, and on-chain settlement. This structure addresses the core application requirements of minimized trust, low cost, and high responsiveness. Below is a step-by-step overview of how a user transaction is processed, proven, and finalized on the settlement layer:
The user’s transaction is first validated and ordered by a sequencer, then posted to a data availability layer. This makes the transaction content visible and verifiable by external validators.
A prover generates a cryptographic proof of execution integrity using either a zkProver Cloud (Zero-Knowledge) or TEE-based computation. This proof is then submitted to the settlement layer blockchain, enabling verification of execution outcomes without re-running the computation.
After the sequencer and prover complete their respective tasks, the results are aggregated by the vApp server. The server coordinates the entire transaction processing workflow, interacting with the ADS/DB to handle state reads/writes, manage state transitions, interface with the settlement layer, and process inter-blockchain logic. The vApp server acts as a central hub that integrates and manages all these functions.
The results of all off-chain computations are finally written to the settlement layer. During this stage, the cryptographic proofs are verified, the state changes are recorded on-chain, and the transaction is officially finalized. This enables vApps to achieve low execution costs, fast responsiveness, and on-chain-level trust simultaneously.
Additionally, the vApp server is connected to an Authenticated Data Structure (ADS) and a database (DB). This data layer stores execution results, state transitions, and transaction history. Through ADS, the system ensures the integrity of all stored data—even when it resides off-chain.
This comprehensive structure of the vApp organizes transaction processing into three architectural layers—Interface Layer, Persistent Layer, and Execution Layer—to ensure a well-structured and secure flow:
S0 (Pre-processing) and S4 (Post-processing) are handled in the Interface Layer. These stages are responsible for validating user input in advance and recording processing results, thereby ensuring both initial validity checks and transparency of outcomes.
S1 (Verifiable State Read) and S3 (Verifiable State Write) take place in the Persistent Layer. During these phases, state data is read from or written to the ADS/DB, and data integrity is verified using Merkle proofs.
The core computation occurs in the Execution Layer at S2 (State Transition), where the system processes the transition from (S, C) → S′. The result of this state change is stored as execution trace data, which is later used to generate zero-knowledge proofs.
By clearly separating these stages and embedding cryptographic verifiability into each step, the vApp transaction lifecycle ensures secure and transparent application execution.
Built on two foundational pillars, the vApp is an effort to simultaneously achieve the usability of Web2 and the philosophical ideals of Web3. Web2 users have long been accustomed to fast and intuitive experiences, hidden complexity, and high reliability. In contrast, Web3 centers around decentralization, trustlessness, and user data sovereignty. These two worlds have often been seen as mutually exclusive—but through technical innovation, vApps aim to bridge that gap in a practical and sustainable way.
While many projects have sought to improve the Web3 developer experience, few have managed to satisfy both developers and users simultaneously. For example, Stackr Labs’s Micro-Rollup allowed Web2 developers to build app-specific rollups using familiar languages but faced challenges with state sharing, cross-chain execution, and infrastructure overhead. Automata utilized TEE-based proof layers to build decentralized trust but was hindered by complexity and low accessibility. Axiom and Brevis provided zero-knowledge coprocessors focused on on-chain data but weren’t suitable for general-purpose dApp development. Marlin delivered a high-performance decentralized computing infrastructure, but it was network-layer focused, offering limited benefits directly to app developers.
These projects each tackled specific technical challenges but ultimately fell short of delivering a holistic improvement to both developer and user experiences. More importantly, many failed to cultivate a sustainable ecosystem. Without surrounding tools, communities, use cases, and infrastructure, technological possibilities rarely translate into real-world adoption. As a result, these efforts often remained relevant only within narrow niches and saw limited mainstream uptake.
In contrast, vApps overcome these limitations in the following ways. vApp offers a Rust-based domain-specific language (DSL) and a fully integrated SDK, allowing developers to build trustworthy dApps without needing deep knowledge of blockchain mechanisms or proof systems. This intuitive development environment reduces infrastructure overhead and allows developers to focus on service logic.
vApps deliver a Web2-level experience for users thanks to high-performance Web3 infrastructure. Users can access services without understanding the underlying technical complexities. Even though cryptographic proofs, data integrity verification, and secure cross-chain execution are happening in the backend, users simply interact with fast and seamless applications.
In this way, vApps are built to ensure usability and ideology do not conflict. They function like Web2 apps, but are fundamentally grounded in Web3 principles. The technology stack guarantees cryptographically verifiable execution, data integrity, and secure cross-chain computation, yet the user is not burdened by this complexity. Rather than interfering with the experience, blockchain becomes the invisible foundation that reinforces it.
Importantly, vApps demonstrate a new level of composability by integrating Succinct’s verifiable computing stack with LayerZero’s inter-chain messaging protocol. While the vApp ecosystem is still in its early stages, the emergence of practical use cases will be key to overcoming current limitations. As we’ll explore in the next section, as real-world applications accumulate, they could form the foundation of a truly internet-scale app ecosystem.
This approach is not about replacing or rejecting Web2—it’s about upgrading it from the inside out. By offering a realistic path to user-centered decentralization, vApps provide concrete solutions in terms of user experience, Web3 infrastructure, and ecosystem scalability. They unify the convenience of Web2 with the trust model of Web3 in a single architecture—paving a viable path for the mainstream expansion of Web3.
So what kinds of use cases become possible with vApps? While concrete deployments or roadmaps have yet to be officially released, we can project several realistic scenarios based on vApp’s core features and strengths. These examples illustrate how vApps could be applied across both existing Web2 and emerging Web3 ecosystems.
The connectivity between on-chain and off-chain environments—and the ability to achieve this quickly and cost-efficiently—gives vApps the potential to significantly enhance the utility of established Web2 applications. Here are some representative scenarios:
3.1.1 E-Commerce: Verifiable Order Processing and Settlement
E-commerce platforms still rely on centralized and opaque systems for complex order processing and multi-party settlements, which makes ensuring process integrity difficult. Even major platforms like JD.com highlight the lack of trust layers in handling complex logic and dispute resolution (case study).
With vApps, these order and settlement processes can be executed off-chain in a zkVM, where the business logic runs efficiently and generates zero-knowledge proofs to verify that all required conditions were met before settlement occurs. Developers can implement the logic using a Rust-based SDK, leveraging lightweight verification structures to reduce computational load.
As a result, trust between consumers and merchants increases, fraud and disputes are reduced, and auditing processes are simplified. Additionally, the system can handle high transaction volumes with ease, significantly enhancing the overall transparency and efficiency of the e-commerce infrastructure.
3.1.2 Finance: Verifiable Auditing and Real-Time Regulatory Reporting
Source: Library AML-CFT
Financial institutions operate under strict Anti-Money Laundering (AML) and Countering the Financing of Terrorism (CFT) regulations. While many rely on rule-based systems and AI to monitor suspicious activity, real-time compliance verification is difficult, and auditing still relies heavily on manual or post-event reviews.
With vApps, regulation-related logic (e.g., monitoring, risk scoring, suspicious activity reporting) can be executed within a zkVM. Every step is backed by zero-knowledge proofs showing it was performed correctly—without exposing underlying user data.
Regulatory authorities can verify the legality and integrity of operations without accessing the original data, enabling real-time regulatory compliance. This reduces auditing costs and minimizes the risk of manipulation.
3.1.3 Privacy: Off-Chain Computation for Privacy-Preserving AI
Training and running AI models often require sensitive data, such as medical records or financial transactions. While homomorphic encryption (HE) enables computation over encrypted data, it’s slow, and differential privacy (DP) can degrade model performance through noise injection.
vApps enable AI models to execute in zkVMs while keeping sensitive data off-chain or encrypted. The data owner provides encrypted input, and the vApp verifies via a zero-knowledge proof that the computation (including any HE or DP mechanisms) was performed correctly.
This allows compliance with data protection regulations such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), while enabling the use of sensitive data in AI within regulated industries and promoting secure collaboration between data owners.
3.1.4 Media: Content Authenticity and Provenance (C2PA + vApp)
The spread of AI-generated or manipulated media has shaken trust in digital content. The C2PA standard helps track creation and editing metadata, but ensuring the integrity of that metadata remains a challenge.
vApp can generate zero-knowledge proofs to guarantee that C2PA metadata was accurately created and remained unchanged throughout the content’s lifecycle. During content creation or editing, the metadata is bound to the asset, and platforms can later verify whether the provenance information has been preserved. This contributes to deepfake detection, enhanced news credibility, and creator verification, ultimately helping to restore trust in the information ecosystem.
vApp also unlocks new possibilities for existing Web3 projects. It allows developers to achieve better user experiences and higher development efficiency without the burden of complex infrastructure. The following scenarios demonstrate how vApps can be applied within the Web3 environment.
3.2.1 Privacy-Enhanced DeFi Transactions via zk-vApp
Public blockchains offer transparency, but this comes at the cost of exposing sensitive transaction data. For cases like personal financial activities or confidential institutional trades, most existing DeFi platforms fail to offer proper privacy protections. While some zero-knowledge-based solutions exist, they often lack general-purpose usability.
With vApps, users can leverage zero-knowledge proofs to validate the legitimacy of their transactions without revealing key details such as transaction amounts or counterparty identities. This allows for confidential swaps and transfers while still demonstrating compliance and asset legitimacy. It provides the ideal infrastructure for designing privacy-sensitive financial products and attracting privacy-conscious users.
3.2.2 Verifiable Web3 Game Mechanics
Web3 games face significant challenges in executing complex game logic fairly on-chain. To address this, many rely heavily on off-chain processing, which creates trust issues around game results. While existing Layer 2 solutions improve speed and cost, they do not fully guarantee fairness.
By using vApps, developers can run game logic written in Rust within a zkVM, generating zero-knowledge proofs to confirm that key operations—like random number generation and state transitions—were executed fairly. These proofs are recorded on-chain, offering players a transparent and trustworthy gaming experience. This approach makes it possible to deliver Web2-level user experiences while maintaining Web3's trust model.
3.2.3 Transparent DAO Treasury Management and Grant Execution
DAOs allocate funds based on community proposals, but trust and efficiency often falter due to complex conditions and conflicting interests. On-chain smart contracts have limitations in expressing nuanced logic, and manual reviews introduce the risk of error and delay.
vApps allow proposal conditions, milestone checks, and decisions regarding recipients and amounts to be processed off-chain. Zero-knowledge proofs can then verify whether the disbursement logic was properly followed. This enhances financial transparency and accountability within DAOs, while automation improves operational efficiency and contributor trust.
3.2.4 Verifiable Credential-Based Decentralized Identity (DID) Wallet
Decentralized Identifiers (DID) and Verifiable Credentials (VC) are foundational elements of self-sovereign identity. However, challenges remain around secure VC storage, selective disclosure, and ensuring the honesty of the identity wallet. This is especially important when privacy must be preserved while delivering credible proof.
A vApp-based DID wallet can support storing VCs and revealing only necessary information (e.g., proving “over 18” instead of showing a full birthdate), while guaranteeing that the data is based on signatures from trusted issuers. It can also verify the authenticity of external credentials and confirm consent for data sharing. This strengthens trust in the DID/VC ecosystem and improves interoperability with various Web3 services.
3.2.5 Improved Transparency and Auditability of Stablecoins
Source: TransFi
Stablecoins are widely used in the blockchain ecosystem, but concerns persist around whether issuers truly hold adequate reserves and are capable of redemptions. Traditional audit systems are periodic and manual, lacking real-time verifiability.
By integrating vApps, asset managers’ reserve data can be used to evaluate the adequacy of backing relative to issued tokens. The results can be converted into zero-knowledge proofs and either published or submitted to regulators. This enables a transparent and real-time auditing framework, enhancing regulatory compliance and user trust in stablecoin operations.
In this way, vApps offer new possibilities based on trust and transparency across various fields such as finance, gaming, DAOs, and identity verification. One of these possibilities has already been realized in practice. Paygo, the first real application built on the vApp architecture, is a stablecoin-based payment system that features fixed fees, dynamic scalability, and user protection. Through zero-knowledge proofs, it ensures user asset protection and trustless execution, providing reliable remittance and escrow functions without relying on a centralized operator. This serves as a powerful example of how the core principles of vApps—verifiability, trustlessness, and modularity—can be implemented in real-world services. Paygo proves that vApps are not merely futuristic concepts, but a tangible reality actively functioning in today’s Web3 landscape.
Source: LayerZero X & Succinct X
Until now, the blockchain industry has focused primarily on improving transaction throughput, reducing fees, and building better infrastructure. While important, these advancements have largely addressed limitations internal to blockchains themselves and have fallen short in enabling Web3 to scale to the size and ubiquity of the internet. Moving forward, continued technical progress at the blockchain layer is essential, but the real bottleneck lies elsewhere.
What Web3 now needs is middleware tooling that allows anyone to create and deploy highly usable, creative applications without being hindered by infrastructure complexity. The true constraint is not the technology itself, but the lack of creative experimentation and composition due to infrastructure barriers. Unlocking this creative potential is the key to scaling Web3 to internet-level adoption, and at the center of that transformation is the concept of the vApp, proposed by LayerZero and Succinct.
The vApp represents a new model for applications to scale to the level of the internet. Built on verifiable computing, zero-knowledge virtual machines, modular architecture, and a unified SDK, vApps enable anyone to develop and deploy applications in a completely trustless environment. This makes it possible to create services that look and feel like Web2, but run entirely on Web3 infrastructure—interoperable across chains and capable of operating at global scale.
At the heart of the vApp are three core design philosophies: composability, abstraction, and modularity. These principles significantly lower the barrier to entry for developers, simplify integration with existing systems, and elevate the overall development experience to Web2 standards. By shifting developer effort away from complex onboarding, cross-chain messaging, and proof generation, vApps allow teams to focus on building core service logic and delivering exceptional user experiences. This isn’t just an infrastructure improvement—it’s a new approach to developer culture in Web3.
Of course, even though vApps simplify development and deployment, scaling to true internet-level adoption will require broader structural adoption across the ecosystem. More blockchains and applications must adopt the vApp framework and interconnect deeply. Additionally, while zkVM-based proof generation offers powerful guarantees, it often still requires high-performance hardware and parallel computation—leading to potentially high costs that could limit application scalability in practice. Key system modules such as sequencers, provers, and servers will also need carefully designed incentive structures and governance models to ensure decentralization and long-term sustainability.
Despite these challenges, the vApp provides a practical foundation for realizing applications that “look like Web2 but run on Web3,” grounded in the design pillars of composability, abstraction, and modularity. If these remaining hurdles can be gradually overcome, vApps may well become the most viable solution for unblocking Web3’s path to internet-scale expansion. How effectively vApps can meet this potential—and whether they can establish themselves as the core infrastructure bridging Web2 and Web3—remains a development well worth watching.
